What Are Functions of Complete Protein Beefs

Protein is an essential macronutrient, but not all food sources of protein are created equal, and you may non need equally much as you think. Acquire the basics nigh protein and shaping your diet with good for you poly peptide foods.

Jump to:
–What is protein?
–How much poly peptide exercise I need?
–It's all about the protein "package"
–Enquiry on protein and human health
–Protein foods and the planet
–The lesser line: choosing healthy poly peptide foods
–[Quiz] Test your protein knowledge!

What Is Protein?

Protein is found throughout the torso—in musculus, bone, skin, hair, and nearly every other body part or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in your claret. At least 10,000 different proteins make you what you lot are and keep yous that mode.

Protein is fabricated from twenty-plus basic building blocks chosen amino acids. Because we don't store amino acids, our bodies brand them in two different ways: either from scratch, or by modifying others. Nine amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—known as the essential amino acids, must come from nutrient.

How Much Protein Do I Need?

The National Academy of Medicine recommends that adults get a minimum of 0.viii grams of poly peptide for every kilogram of trunk weight per twenty-four hours, or just over 7 grams for every 20 pounds of body weight. [1]

• For a 140-pound person, that ways about fifty grams of protein each day.
• For a 200-pound person, that means virtually 70 grams of protein each mean solar day.

The National University of Medicine as well sets a wide range for acceptable protein intake—anywhere from 10% to 35% of calories each day. Across that, there'south relatively footling solid data on the ideal amount of protein in the diet or the healthiest target for calories contributed past protein. In an analysis conducted at Harvard among more than 130,000 men and women who were followed for up to 32 years, the percentage of calories from total protein intake was not related to overall bloodshed or to specific causes of expiry. [2] However, the source of poly peptide was important.

What are "complete" proteins, and how much do I need?

"Pure" protein, whether derived from plant or fauna foods, probably has like effects on health, although the mix of amino acids can have wellness implications. Some proteins institute in nutrient are "complete," meaning they comprise all xx-plus types of amino acids needed to make new protein in the body. Others are incomplete, lacking 1 or more of the nine essential amino acids, which our bodies can't make from scratch or from other amino acids. Animal-based foods (meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy foods) tend to be good sources of complete protein, while plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, basics, and seeds) oft lack one or more than essential amino acid. Those who abjure from eating animal-based foods tin can consume a variety of protein-containing institute foods each day in society to go all the amino acids needed to brand new poly peptide, and likewise cull to comprise consummate plant proteins like quinoa and chia seeds.

It's important to annotation that millions of people worldwide, especially immature children, don't get plenty poly peptide due to food insecurity. The furnishings of protein deficiency and malnutrition range in severity from growth failure and loss of muscle mass to decreased amnesty, weakening of the centre and respiratory system, and expiry.

However, it's uncommon for healthy adults in the U.S. and most other developed countries to have a deficiency, because there's an abundance of plant and animate being-based foods full of protein. In fact, many in the U.S. are consuming more than than plenty poly peptide, especially from beast-based foods. [3]

Information technology'due south All About the Protein "Package"

When we eat foods for protein, we also consume everything that comes alongside it: the different fats, fiber, sodium, and more than. It's this protein "bundle" that's probable to make a deviation for health.

The tabular array below shows a sample of food "packages" sorted by protein content, alongside a range of components that come with it.

Tabular array: Comparison protein packages

To call out a few examples:

• A 4-ounce broiled sirloin steak is a cracking source of poly peptide—about 33 grams worth. Only it also delivers about 5 grams of saturated fat.
• A 4-ounce ham steak with 22 grams of poly peptide has only 1.6 grams of saturated fat, but it's loaded with one,500 milligrams worth of sodium.
• 4 ounces of grilled sockeye salmon has about 30 grams of protein, naturally depression in sodium, and contains just over ane gram of saturated fat. Salmon and other fatty fish are also first-class sources of omega-three fats, a type of fat that'southward specially good for the heart.
• A cup of cooked lentils provides about 18 grams of protein and 15 grams of fiber, and information technology has virtually no saturated fat or sodium.

What about protein powders?

Powdered protein tin come from a multifariousness of sources, including eggs, milk (east.thousand., casein, whey), and plants (e.g., soybeans, peas, hemp). Some protein powders comprise protein from multiple sources; for instance, a vegan choice might include poly peptide derived from peas, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, and alfalfa. Like other dietary supplements, poly peptide powders are non regulated by the U.Due south. Food and Drug Administration for safety. They tin can often contain non-protein ingredients, including vitamins and minerals, thickeners, added sugars, non-caloric sweeteners, and artificial flavoring. If y'all choose to consume protein pulverization, information technology is important to read the nutrition and ingredient labels beforehand, as products may contain unexpected ingredients and large amounts of added sugars and calories.

Learn more about poly peptide powders and other workout supplements

Research on Poly peptide and Health

Available prove indicates that it's the source of protein (or, the poly peptide "package"), rather than the corporeality of protein, that likely makes a difference for our health. You tin can explore the inquiry related to each disease in the tabs beneath, but here'south the evidence-based takeaway: eating salubrious protein sources similar beans, basics, fish, or poultry in place of blood-red meat and candy meat tin lower the risk of several diseases and premature death.

Eye disease

Research conducted at the Harvard Chan School of Public Health has found that eating fifty-fifty small amounts of red meat—particularly candy ruby meat—on a regular footing is linked to an increased hazard of heart disease and stroke, and the chance of dying from cardiovascular affliction or whatsoever other cause. [4-vi] Conversely, replacing cherry and candy ruby meat with healthy poly peptide sources such every bit beans, soy foods, basics, fish, or poultry seems to reduce these risks. One of the reasons why plant sources of protein are related to lower risk of cardiovascular disease compared to protein from scarlet meat and dairy is because of the different types of fatty in these protein packages. Institute-based protein sources are more than unsaturated, which lowers LDL cholesterol—an established risk factor for heart disease. Also, plant sources comprise no cholesterol. Other factors are probable to contribute to the lower risk, but this is a central factor.

• One investigation followed 120,000 men and women in the Nurses' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-Upward Report for more than than two decades. For every additional three-ounce serving of unprocessed cherry-red meat the study participants consumed each solar day, their risk of dying from cardiovascular disease increased by xiii%. [5]
  • Processed blood-red meat was even more strongly linked to dying from cardiovascular disease—and in smaller amounts: every additional 1.5 ounce serving of candy blood-red meat consumed each day (equivalent to 1 hot dog or two strips of bacon) was linked to a 20% increase in the adventure of cardiovascular disease death.
  • Cutting back on reddish meat could save lives: the researchers estimated that if all the men and women in the study had reduced their total ruddy and processed red meat intake to less than half a serving a day, one in 10 cardiovascular illness deaths would accept been prevented.
• In another study of 43,000 men that looked at both amount and sources of protein found that intake of full protein was minimally associated with center disease risk, just intake of poly peptide from blood-red meat was associated with higher risk. [7]

• Another study—the first meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials looking at the health effects of reddish meat by substituting it for other specific types of foods—found that diets that replaced red meat with healthy constitute proteins led to decreases in risk factors for cardiovascular affliction. [28]
  • The study included data from 36 randomized controlled trials involving 1,803 participants. The researchers compared people who ate diets with red meat with people who ate more of other types of foods (i.e. chicken, fish, carbohydrates, or plant proteins such every bit legumes, soy, or nuts), looking at blood concentrations of cholesterol, triglycerides, lipoproteins, and claret pressure—all risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
  • Researchers found that when diets with red meat were compared with all other types of diets combined, there were no significant differences in total cholesterol, lipoproteins, or blood force per unit area, although diets college in red meat did lead to higher triglyceride concentrations than the comparison diets.
  • However, researchers found that diets higher in high-quality plant protein sources such equally legumes, soy, and nuts resulted in lower levels of both total and LDL ("bad") cholesterol compared to diets with crimson meat.

  In terms of theamount of protein consumed, there's evidence that eating a relatively high-protein nutrition may exist beneficial for the heart, as long as the protein comes from a healthy source.

  • A 20-year prospective study of over 80,000 women plant that those who ate depression-carbohydrate diets that were high in plant-based sources of fat and protein had a 30%lower risk of centre disease compared with women who ate high-carbohydrate, low-fat diets. [8] Notwithstanding, eating a low-carbohydrate diet high in animal fat or protein did not offer such protection.
  • Further evidence of the heart benefits of eating good for you protein in identify of carbohydrate comes from a randomized trial known every bit the Optimal Macronutrient Intake Trial for Eye Health (OmniHeart). A good for you diet that replaced some sugar with healthy protein (or healthy fat) did a better task of lowering blood pressure and harmful low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol than a higher sugar diet. [nine]
  • Similarly, the "EcoAtkins" weight loss trial compared a low-fat, high -saccharide, vegetarian diet to a low-sugar vegan nutrition that was loftier in vegetable poly peptide and fatty. Though weight loss was similar on the 2 diets, study participants on the high poly peptide nutrition saw improvements in blood lipids and blood force per unit area. [10]
  • Of course, occasionally a study volition generate headlines because it found the opposite result. For instance, one study of Swedish women who ate low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets had higher rates of cardiovascular affliction and death than those who ate lower-poly peptide, higher-saccharide diets. [xi] But the study, which assessed the women's diets only in one case and so followed them for 15 years, did not look at what types of carbohydrates or what sources of poly peptide these women ate. That was important because most of the women'south protein came from animal sources.

Diabetes

Again, the source of protein matters more than protein quantity when information technology comes to diabetes take a chance. Eating more than ruby meat predicts a college risk of type 2 diabetes, while consuming nuts, legumes, and poultry is related to lower risk.

• A 2011 written report institute that people who ate diets high in red meat, especially processed red meat, had a higher chance of type two diabetes than those who rarely ate ruby or candy meat. [12] For each additional serving a twenty-four hour period of carmine meat or processed red meat that study participants ate, their chance of diabetes rose 12% and 32%, respectively. Investigators also found that replacing a serving of red meat with i serving of nuts, depression-fat dairy products, or whole grains each day was associated with an estimated 16% to 35% lower adventure of blazon 2 diabetes.
• A related study also institute that people who started eating more ruddy meat than usual were had a 50% higher take a chance of developing type 2 diabetes during the adjacent four years, and researchers too found that those who reduced cherry meat consumption had a 14% lower risk of type ii diabetes over a 10-year follow-up menstruation. [xiii]
• How meat is cooked may as well touch type two diabetes risk. In a study that tracked the health of over 289,000 men and women, researchers establish that individuals who most often ate red meats and craven cooked at loftier temperatures were i.5 times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes, compared to those who ate the to the lowest degree. There was also an increased risk of weight gain and developing obesity in the frequent users of loftier-temperature cooking methods, which may have contributed to the development of diabetes. Of notation, this inquiry demonstrated that cooking methods might contribute to diabetes adventure beyond the furnishings of meat consumption alone. [14] Learn more about this study.
• More prove that the source of protein matters comes from a 20-year study that looked at the relationship between depression-carbohydrate diets and blazon 2 diabetes in women. Low-saccharide diets that were high in vegetable sources of fat and protein were associated with a lower risk of blazon ii diabetes. [15] But low-sugar diets that were loftier in animal sources of protein or fat did not show this benefit.
• For type 1 diabetes (formerly called juvenile or insulin-dependent diabetes), proteins plant in moo-cow's milk have been implicated in the development of the disease in babies with a predisposition to the illness, only research remains inconclusive. [16,17]

Cancer

When it comes to cancer, once once more, the source of poly peptide seems to matter more than quantity.

• In the Nurse's Health Study and the Wellness Professionals Follow-Up Report, every additional serving per day of red meat or processed crimson meat was associated with a 10% and 16% college run a risk of cancer death, respectively. [five]
• In October 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO)'s International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that consumption of candy meat is "carcinogenic to humans," and that consumption of red meat is "probably carcinogenic to humans." [xviii] The IARC Working Grouping (comprised of 22 scientists from x countries) reached these conclusions from an evaluation of over 800 studies.
  • Conclusions were primarily based on the evidence for colorectal cancer. Information likewise showed positive associations between processed meat consumption and stomach cancer, and between red meat consumption and pancreatic and prostate cancer.
• A 2014 study also found a link between loftier consumption of red meat during adolescence and premenopausal breast cancer, while higher intakes of poultry, nuts, and legumes were associated with lower adventure. Using data on the health of 89,000 women (aged 24 to 43) followed over a 20-year menstruum, researchers found a 22% higher adventure of breast cancer in those who ate one.five servings of red meat per day while in loftier schoolhouse, compared to those who only had one serving per week. Each additional daily serving of red meat seemed to increase the adventure of breast cancer past another thirteen%.  [19]
• How meat is cooked may also have implications for cancer risk. Loftier-temperature grilling creates potentially cancer-causing compounds in meat, including polycyclic effluvious hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines. Learn nigh tips for healthy grilling.

Premature death

• In 2016, researchers reviewed protein intakes of more than 131,000 women and men from the Nurses' Wellness Study and Health Professionals Follow-upwards Study. Afterwards tracking their diets for up to 32 years, the authors found that a college intake of blood-red meat, especially candy versions (sausage, bacon, hot dogs, salami), was linked to a modestly higher risk of expiry, while a college protein intake from found foods carried a lower risk. [ii] Learn more about this study.

Bone health

• Digesting protein releases acids into the bloodstream, which the body normally neutralizes with calcium and other buffering agents. As a result, early research theorized that eating lots of protein requires a lot more calcium – which may be pulled from bone. A 2009 systematic review found that this doesn't appear to happen. [20]

Weight control

The same healthy protein foods that are good choices for disease prevention may also help with weight control. Once again, it's the source of poly peptide that matters.

• Researchers at the Harvard Chan School of Public Wellness followed the diet and lifestyle habits of over 120,000 men and women for up to 20 years, looking at how pocket-size changes contributed to weight gain over fourth dimension. [21]
  • Those who ate more red and processed meat over the form of the report gained more weight, almost 1 actress pound every four years, while those who ate more nuts over the course of the study gained less weight, about a half pound less every four years.
• A subsequent detailed analysis of this cohort besides plant that eating red meat, chicken with skin, and regular cheese was associated with greater weight gain. Yogurt, peanut butter, walnuts and other basics, chicken without pare, low-fat cheese, and seafood was associated with less weight gain. [22]
• Another study showed that eating around 1 daily serving of beans, chickpeas, lentils or peas tin increase fullness, which may lead to better weight management and weight loss. [23]

There'due south no need to go overboard on protein. Though some studies testify benefits of high-protein, low-saccharide diets in the short term (such equally the paleo diet), avoiding fruits and whole grains ways missing out on healthful fiber, vitamins, minerals, and other phytonutrients.

Other considerations involving protein

• Specific proteins in food and the environment are involved in food allergies, which are overreactions of the allowed system (take gluten and celiac illness, for case).
• Medical journals are likewise full of reports linking allergic responses to specific poly peptide sources with a variety of conditions (breathing issues, chronic digestive issues, etc.). Eggs, fish, milk, peanuts, tree nuts, and soybeans cause allergic reactions in some people.
• Individuals diagnosed with certain diseases (such every bit kidney and liver affliction) demand to monitor their poly peptide intake according to their medico's guidelines.
• You may take also heard that the use of antibiotics in the product of animal-based foods has contributed to the emergence of "superbugs," or strains of bacteria resistant to currently available antibiotics. In 2016, the FDA announced a voluntary programme to limit the routine utilize of antibiotics in food product (such every bit giving antibiotics to healthy animals to help them grow faster). [24] As a consumer, y'all may want to find products "raised without antibiotics" if you lot plan on eating meat. Some companies characteristic this language on the packaging, others don't.

Poly peptide Foods and the Planet

Just every bit dissimilar foods tin can have differing impacts on man health, they also accept differing impacts on the environment. Agronomics is a major contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally, the accumulation of which is driving climate alter at a charge per unit unprecedented in human history. Withal, not all foods have an equal impact. Production of animal-based foods tends to have higher GHG emissions than producing constitute-based foods—and dairy and especially red meat (particularly beef, lamb, and goat) stand up out for their disproportionate impact.

Source: World Resources Institute, www.wri.org/proteinscorecard

To give you an idea, this "scorecard" from the World Resources Institute illustrates the differing GHG emissions per gram of protein from both animal and constitute-based protein foods. [25] Making simply one pound (454 grams) of lamb generates five times more than GHGs than making a pound of craven and around 30 times more than making a pound of lentils. [26] In the U.S. solitary, beefiness accounts for 36% of all food-related GHG emissions. [27] Across emissions, it'south besides important to notation that nutrient production places an enormous demand upon our natural resources, every bit agriculture is a major correspondent to deforestation, species extinction, and freshwater depletion and contamination.

Learn more about the impacts of unlike foods on your plate.

Bottom Line

Poly peptide is a key part of any nutrition. The average person needs about 7 grams of poly peptide every day for every twenty pounds of body weight. Considering protein is found in an abundance of foods, many people can hands meet this goal. However, non all poly peptide "packages" are created equal. Considering foods contain a lot more than protein, it's important to pay attention to what else is coming with it. That's why the Healthy Eating Plate encourages choosing good for you protein foods.

Building off this full general guidance, here are some additional details and tips for shaping your diet with the best poly peptide choices:

• Get your protein from plants when possible . Eating legumes (beans and peas), nuts, seeds, whole grains, and other constitute-based sources of protein is a win for your health and the health of the planet. If nearly of your protein comes from plants, brand sure that yous mix up your sources so no "essential" components of poly peptide are missing. The good news is that the establish kingdom offers plenty of options to mix and lucifer. Here are some examples for each category:
  • Legumes: lentils, beans (adzuki, blackness, fava, chickpeas/garbanzo, kidney,  lima, mung, pinto etc.), peas (green, snowfall, snap, split, etc.), edamame/soybeans (and products fabricated from soy: tofu, tempeh, etc.), peanuts.
  • Nuts and Seeds: almonds, pistachios, cashews, walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, hemp seeds, squash and pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, flax seeds, sesame seeds, chia seeds.
  • Whole Grains: kamut, teff, wheat, quinoa, rice, wild rice, millet, oats, buckwheat,
  • Other: while many vegetables and fruits comprise some level of poly peptide, it's by and large in smaller amounts than the other plant-based foods. Some examples with higher protein quantities include corn, broccoli, asparagus, brussels sprouts, and artichokes.

• Upgrade your sources of animal protein . Considering the protein package is specially important when information technology comes to creature-based foods:
  • Generally, poultry (chicken, turkey, duck) and a variety of seafood (fish, crustaceans, mollusks) are your best bet. Eggs can be a good choice, too.
  • If y'all enjoy dairy foods, it'due south all-time to do so in moderation (call up closer to one-ii servings a day; and incorporating yogurt is probably a better choice than getting all your servings from milk or cheese).
  • Red meat—which includes unprocessed beef, pork, lamb, veal, mutton, and goat meat—should be consumed on a more limited basis. If you enjoy blood-red meat, consider eating it in small amounts or merely on special occasions.
  • Processed meats, such as salary, hot dogs, sausages, and cold cuts should be avoided. Although these products are often made from reddish meats, processed meats too include items like turkey bacon, craven sausage, and deli-sliced chicken and ham. (Processed meat refers to any meat that has been "transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to raise flavor or meliorate preservation." [18])

Looking to reduce red and processed meats, but unsure where to beginning? Hither are a few approaches to cutting-back while keeping your meals satiating and flavorful. Just notice your "starting bespeak" and move forward with the strategies that work for you lot:

Consume less meat, enjoy more variety

This approach boosts healthy establish-based foods like beans, basics, whole grains, and other veggies, while nonetheless providing means to contain some of your favorite beast-based foods.

Test your protein knowledge!

Fix to see how much you know nearly protein and salubrious poly peptide foods? Attempt this 10 question quiz to find out:

References

1. National Academies of Medicine.Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Cobweb, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients).
2. Vocal M, Fung TT, Hu FB, Willett WC, Longo VD, Chan AT, Giovannucci EL. Association of animal and plant protein intake with all-cause and cause-specific bloodshed. JAMA internal medicine. 2016 October 1;176(10):1453-63.
3. Fehrenbach KS, Righter Air conditioning, Santo RE. A critical examination of the available data sources for estimating meat and protein consumption in the USA. Public wellness nutrition. 2016 Jun;xix(eight):1358-67.
4. Bernstein AM, Sun Q, Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Willett WC. Major dietary protein sources and hazard of coronary heart illness in women. Circulation. 2010 Aug 31;122(9):876-83.
5. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB. Red meat consumption and bloodshed: results from ii prospective cohort studies. Archives of internal medicine. 2012 April nine;172(7):555-63.
6. Bernstein AM, Pan A, Rexrode KM, Stampfer K, Hu FB, Mozaffarian D, Willett WC. Dietary protein sources and the risk of stroke in men and women. Stroke. 2011 Jan 1:STROKEAHA-111.
7. Preis SR, Stampfer MJ, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Rimm EB. Dietary protein and take a chance of ischemic heart disease in middle-anile men–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2010 Sep 29;92(five):1265-72.
8. Halton TL, Willett WC, Liu S, Manson JE, Albert CM, Rexrode One thousand, Hu FB. Depression-sugar-diet score and the chance of coronary eye disease in women. New England Periodical of Medicine. 2006 November 9;355(19):1991-2002.
9. Appel LJ, Sacks FM, Carey VJ, Obarzanek E, Boyfriend JF, Miller ER, Conlin PR, Erlinger TP, Rosner BA, Laranjo NM, Charleston J. Furnishings of protein, monounsaturated fat, and carbohydrate intake on blood pressure and serum lipids: results of the OmniHeart randomized trial. JAMA. 2005 Nov 16;294(19):2455-64.
10. Jenkins DJ, Wong JM, Kendall CW, Esfahani A, Ng VW, Leong TC, Faulkner DA, Vidgen Due east, Greaves KA, Paul G, Singer Westward. The effect of a plant-based low-saccharide ("Eco-Atkins") diet on body weight and blood lipid concentrations in hyperlipidemic subjects. Archives of internal medicine. 2009 Jun eight;169(11):1046-54.
11. Lagiou P, Sandin Due south, Lof One thousand, Trichopoulos D, Adami HO, Weiderpass E. Depression carbohydrate-high poly peptide diet and incidence of cardiovascular diseases in Swedish women: prospective accomplice report. BMJ. 2012 Jun 26;344:e4026.
12. Pan A, Sunday Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Red meat consumption and take chances of blazon two diabetes: 3 cohorts of United states of america adults and an updated meta-analysis–. The American journal of clinical diet. 2011 Aug 10;94(4):1088-96.
13. Pan A, Lord's day Q, Bernstein AM, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in red meat consumption and subsequent risk of type two diabetes mellitus: three cohorts of U.s.a. men and women. JAMA internal medicine. 2013 Jul 22;173(fourteen):1328-35.
14. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in ruby-red meat consumption and subsequent risk of blazon 2 diabetes mellitus: three cohorts of US men and women.JAMA internal medicine. 2013 Jul 22;173(xiv):1328-35.
15. Halton TL, Liu Due south, Manson JE, Hu FB. Low-carbohydrate-diet score and risk of type 2 diabetes in women–. The American journal of clinical diet. 2008 Feb ane;87(2):339-46.
16. Åkerblom HK, Vaarala O, Hyöty H, Ilonen J, Knip Grand. Environmental factors in the etiology of type 1 diabetes. American journal of medical genetics. 2002 May 30;115(1):xviii-29.
17. Vaarala O, Ilonen J, Ruohtula T, Pesola J, Virtanen SM, Härkönen T, Koski K, Kallioinen H, Tossavainen O, Poussa T, Järvenpää AL. Removal of bovine insulin from cow's milk formula and early initiation of beta-cell autoimmunity in the FINDIA airplane pilot study. Athenaeum of pediatrics & adolescent medicine. 2012 Jul one;166(7):608-14.
18. Bouvard V, Loomis D, Guyton KZ, Grosse Y, El Ghissassi F, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha North, Mattock H, Straif Thousand. Carcinogenicity of consumption of ruby-red and candy meat. The Lancet Oncology. 2015 Dec 1;sixteen(16):1599-600.
19. Farvid MS, Cho East, Chen WY, Eliassen AH, Willett WC. Adolescent meat intake and breast cancer risk. International periodical of cancer. 2015 Apr 15;136(8):1909-20.
20. Darling AL, Millward DJ, Torgerson DJ, Hewitt CE, Lanham-New SA. Dietary poly peptide and os health: a systematic review and meta-analysis–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2009 Nov 4;90(6):1674-92.
21. Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight proceeds in women and men. New England Periodical of Medicine. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2392-404.
22. Smith JD, Hou T, Ludwig DS, Rimm EB, Willett W, Hu FB, Mozaffarian D. Changes in intake of protein foods, carbohydrate amount and quality, and long-term weight alter: results from 3 prospective cohorts–. The American periodical of clinical nutrition. 2015 Apr viii;101(6):1216-24.
23. Li SS, Kendall CW, de Souza RJ, Jayalath VH, Cozma AI, Ha V, Mirrahimi A, Chiavaroli L, Augustin LS, Blanco Mejia S, Leiter LA. Dietary pulses, satiety and nutrient intake: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of acute feeding trials. Obesity. 2014 Aug;22(eight):1773-80.
24. Food and Drug Administration. FDA's Strategy on Antimicrobial Resistance – Questions and Answers. https://world wide web.fda.gov/animalveterinary/guidancecomplianceenforcement/guidanceforindustry/ucm216939.htm. Accessed on 11/6/2018.
25. World Resources Constitute.Protein Scorecard. https://www.wri.org/resource/data-visualizations/protein-scorecard. Accessed on eleven/6/2018.
26. Culinary Institute of America and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Menus of Alter: 2016 Annual Report.http://www.menusofchange.org/
27. Heller MC, Keoleian GA. Greenhouse gas emission estimates of US dietary choices and food loss. Periodical of Industrial Ecology. 2015 Jun;xix(3):391-401.
28. Guasch-Ferré M, Satija A, Blondin S, Janiszewski M, Emlen E, O'Connor L, Campbell W, Hu F, Willett Westward, Stampfer M. Meta-Assay of Randomized Controlled Trials of Red Meat Consumption in Comparison With Various Comparison Diets on Cardiovascular Risk Factors. Circulation. 2019 April 1;139(xv):1828-45.
    *Disclosures: Dr. Hu has received research support from the California Walnut Commission. Dr. Campbell reported receiving enquiry support from the National Institutes of Health (T32 Fellowship for Lauren O'Connor), the American Egg Board – The Egg Diet Heart, The Beef Checkoff Program, The National Dairy Council, The Pork Checkoff Program, and the Barilla Grouping. Dr. Campbell too reported serving on the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Commission. Dr. Satija is an employee of Assay Group, Inc. The other authors declare no conflicts.

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